Dealing with Edge Cases:
Some failures are neither random nor independent. Moreover, safety is typically more about dealing with unusual cases. This means that brute force testing is likely to miss important edge case safety issues.
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Moreover, arguing that the arrival of exceptional external events is random and independent across a fleet is clearly incorrect in the general case. A few simple examples of correlated events between vehicles in a fleet include:
· Timekeeping events (e.g. daylight savings time, leap second)
· Extreme weather (e.g. tornado, tsunami, flooding, blizzard white-out, wildfires) affecting multiple systems in the same geographic area
· Appearance of novel-looking pedestrians occurring on holidays (e.g. Halloween, Mardi Gras)
· Security vulnerabilities being attacked in a coordinated way
For life-critical systems, proper operation in typical situations needs to be validated. But this should be a given. Progressing from baseline functionality (a vehicle that can operate acceptably in normal situations) to a safe system (a vehicle that safely handles unusual situations and unexpected situations) requires dealing with unusual cases that will inevitably occur in the deployed fleet.
We define an edge case as a rare situation that will occur only occasionally, but still needs specific design attention to be dealt with in a reasonable and safe way. The quantification of “rare” is relative, and generally refers to situations or conditions that will occur often enough in a full-scale deployed fleet to be a problem but have not been captured in the design or requirements process. (It is understood that the process of identifying and handling edge cases makes them – by definition – no longer edge cases. So in practice the term applies to situations that would not have otherwise been handled had special attempts not be made to identify them during the design and validation process.)
It is useful to distinguish edge cases from corner cases. Corner cases are combinations of normal operational parameters. Not all corner cases are edge cases, and the converse. An example of a corner case could be a driving situation with an iced over road, low sun angle, heavy traffic, and a pedestrian in the roadway. This is a corner case since each item in that list ought to be an expected operational parameter, and it is the combination that might be rare. This would be an edge case only if there is some novelty to the combination that produces an emergent effect with system behavior. If the system can handle the combination of factors in a corner case without any special design work, then it’s not really an edge case by our definition. In practice, even difficult-to-handle corner cases that occur frequently will be identified during system design.
Only corner cases that are both infrequent and present novelty due to the combination of conditions are edge cases. It is worth noting that changing geographic location, season of year, or other factors can result in different corner cases being identified during design and test, and leave different sets of edge cases unresolved. Thus, in practice, edge cases that remain after normal system design procedures could differ depending upon the operational design domain of the vehicle, the test plan, and even random chance occurrences of which corner cases happened to appear in training data and field trials.
Classically an edge case refers to a type of boundary condition that affects inputs or reveals gaps in requirements. More generally, edge cases can be wholly unexpected events, such as the appearance of a unique road sign, or an unexpected animal type on a highway. They can be a corner case that was thought to be impossible, such as an icy road in a tropical climate. They can also be an unremarkable (to a human), non-corner case that somehow triggers an autonomy fault or stumbles upon a gap in training data, such as a light haze that results in perception failure. The thing that makes something an edge case is that it unexpectedly activates a requirements, design, or implementation defect in the system.
There are two implications to the occurrence of such edge cases in safety argumentation. One is that fixing edge cases as they arrive might not improve safety appreciably if the population of edge cases is large due to the heavy tail distribution problem (Koopman 2018c). This is because removing even a large number of individual defects from an essentially infinite-size pool of rarely activated defects does not materially improve things. Another implication is that the arrival of edge cases might be correlated by date, time, weather, societal events, micro-location, or combinations of these triggers. Such a correlation can invalidate an assumption that losses from activation of a safety defect will result in small losses between the time the defect first activates and the time a fix can be produced. (Such correlated mishaps can be thought of as the safety equivalent of a “zero day attack” from the security world.)
It is helpful to identify edge cases to the degree possible within the constraints of the budget and resources available to a project. This can be partially accomplished via corner case testing (e.g. Ding 2017). The strategy here would be to test essentially all corner cases to flush out any that happen to present special problems that make them edge cases. However, some edge cases also require identifying likely novel situations beyond combinations of ordinary and expected scenario components. And other edge cases are exceptional to an autonomous system, but not obviously corner cases in the eyes of a human test designer.
Ultimately, it is unclear if it can ever be shown that all edge cases have been identified and corresponding mitigations designed into the system. (Formal methods could help here, but the question would be whether any assumptions that needed to be made to support proofs were themselves vulnerable to edge cases.) Therefore, for immature systems it is important to be able to argue that inevitable edge cases will be dealt with in a safe way frequently enough to achieve an appropriate level of safety. One potential argumentation approach is to aggressively monitor and report unusual operational scenarios and proactively respond to near misses and incidents before a similar edge case can trigger a loss event, arguing that the probability of a loss event from unhandled edge cases is sufficiently low. Such an argument would have to address potential issues from correlated activation of edge cases.
(This is an excerpt of our SSS 2019 paper: Koopman, P., Kane, A. & Black, J., "Credible Autonomy Safety Argumentation," Safety-Critical Systems Symposium, Bristol UK, Feb. 2019. Read the full text here)
- Koopman, P. (2018c) "The Heavy Tail Safety Ceiling," Automated and Connected Vehicle Systems Testing Symposium, June 2018.
- Ding, Z., “Accelerated evaluation of automated vehicles,” http://www-personal.umich.edu/~zhaoding/accelerated-evaluation.html on 10/15/2017.
